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GCSE CCEA Biology Living Process and body System Complete Revision Summary

Living Process and body System

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Living Process and body System

• Organisation hierarchy
• Human Digestive System
• Circulatory System
• Heart and the blood vessels
• Blood
• Coronory Heart Disease
• Non Communicable Disease
• Respiratory System
• Plant Tissues
• Plant Organ System
• Transpiration
• Photosynthesis
• Factors affecting photosynthesis
• How plants use glucose
• Greenhouses
• Respiration
• Homeostasis
• Human Nervous System
• The Brain
• The Eye
• Thermoregulation
• Endocrine System
• Control of Blood Glucose
• Osmoregulation
• Human Reproduction
• Contraception
• Negative Feedback
• Plant Hormones
•  

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LIVING SYSTEM HIEARARCHY

CELLS

• Nerve Cell
• Muscle Cell

TISSUES

• Muscular tissue
• Epithelial tissue
• Glandular tissue

ORGANS

• Stomach, kidney, liver, pancreas, Heart

ORGAN SYSTEM

• Circulatory System,
• Digestive System
• Nervous System
• Excretory System

ORGANISMS

Digestion

It is the process of breaking down large insoluble food particles in the food into soluble small particles which can then be absorbed into the blood

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DIGESTION PROCESS

INGESTION –

• It happens with the help of mouth and tongue
• Taking in of food with the help of mouth.
• The teeth and tongue helps in churning the food and mixing with saliva.

DIGESTION –

• It happens with the help of stomach, intestine , pancrease and liver
• Breakdown of large insoluble particle into small soluble ones

ABSORPTION –

• Small Intestine
• The process by which digested food particles are absorbed into the blood

ASSIMILATION –

• In the body cells
• Using the absorbed food for releasing energy and in body processes.

EGESTION –

• By rectum and Anus
• Getting rid of undigested food materials.

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BILE JUICE

• It is the green yellow alkaline liquid which is produced in the liver and stored in the Gall Bladder.
• It performs two major Functions:

NEUTRALIZATION

• The food that comes from the stomach is acidic and the enzymes of the intestine can work in alkaline conditions.
• The bile neutralizes the food that comes from the stomach and makes it alkaline so that the enzyme released in the intestine can work effectively.

EMULSIFICATION OF FATS

• For lipase to work, the fat must be broken down into small droplets to increase the surface area for the lipase to function.
• The bile perform this function of emulsification of fats for the efficient working of lipase.

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COMPONENTS OF FOOD

ENZYMES

• They are biological catalyst that increases the rate of a biological reaction without being used up.
• They increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative route that works by lowering the activation energy.
• They are protein in nature so they are sensitive to heat and pH.

LOCK AND KEY MODEL

Enzymes are highly specific due to the active site. As the active site has a shape complimentary to the substrate. So the specific substrate molecule can fit into the active site of the enzyme.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION

ENZYME CONCENTRATION

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Temperature

• Rate of reaction increases as particles gain kinetic energy and they collide more increasing
• The optimum temperature. It is the point where the enzyme activity is the highest.

pH

• Different enzymes has different pH optimum.
• Stomach enzymes works in acidic conditions which are maintained by hydrochloric acid Intential enzymes works in alkaline pH maintained by bile

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GCSE CCEA Biology Living Process and body System Complete Revision Summary

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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The system that provides the bosy with oxygen, nutrient, hormones and all the essential things required by the body to survive. It also eliminate the waste products.

PUMPING ORGAN

• It the heart that pumps the transporting medium all around the body.
• HEART

TRANSPXTING MEDIUM

• It is the blood which contains all the dissolved substances and oxygen required by the body.
• BLOOD

VESSELS

• They carries the blood from one part to another.
• ARTERIES
• VEINS
• CAPILLARIES

BLOOD

BLOOD PLASMA

• It is the liquid component of the blood.
• It makes 55% of the blood.

It is composed of:-

• Glucose
• Amino Acids
• Hormones
• Waste Products like Urea
• Carbon Dioxide

BLOOD CELLS

RED BLOOD CELLS

• It transport oxygen all around the body. It is a specialised cells
• Biconcave disc
• Increases the surface area for oxygen transport
• No nucleus
• To provide more room for oxygen contains haemoglobin
• Binds with oxygen to carry it around the body

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

• They are soldiers of the cells
• The protect the body from infections
• They are made up of lymphocytes which produce antibodies.
• They also have phagocytes which engulfs the pathogen

PLATELETS

• They are involved in blood clotting
• They have fibrin proteins which forms the mesh around the blood

NEED FOR CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

LOW SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO

• Multicellular organisms due to their bigger size have very low surface area to volume ratio.
• As a result, diffusion alone is not effective to meet the demands of the cell so it requires a circulatory system.

METABOLICALLY ACTIVE

• The multicellular organisms are metabolically active. So they need constant supply of oxygen and food and constant removal of waste products.

MULTICELLULAR

• Being multicellular many cells are deep and the diffusion distance is larger.
• So they need a circulatory system that transport substance deep inside the cells.

DOUBLE CIRCULATON

• In One complete cycle the blood is pumped into the heart twice.
• It involves two circulation: Pulmonary: Circulation between Lungs and Heart
• Systemic Circulation: Circulation between heart and the body
• Double circulation makes the circulation more efficient by preventing the mixing of oxygenated blood and helps to alter the pressure from the different chambers of the heart

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Heart        

• Heart is the pumping organ
• Working all day and night
• It has four chambers
• Atrium are at the top and Ventricles are at the bottom.
• Ventricles have thicker wall than the atrium.
• Left Ventricle have the thickest wall amongst all other chamber

BLOOD VESSELS

CORONORY HEART DISEASES

• Coronory Artery that supplies the blood to the arteries become narrow.
• The fatty materials like cholesterol gets deposited and narrow the artery.
• The narrowed artery reduced the blood flow to the heart.
• The blood flow to the heart is reduced.
• The heart do not get enough oxygen.
• This causes heart pain, chest pain and heart attack.

Treatment of Coronory Heart Disease.

• A Stent is placed with the baloon in the blocked artery.
• The blocked artery is opened by inflating the baloon.
• The metal mesh stent keep the stent in place.
• This resumes the blood flow.
• People can also be given statin which lowers the blood cholesterol and prevent the deposition of the cholestrol.
• The blood flow to the narrow artery is byepassed to the graft taken from another part of the body

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PROBLEMS TO THE HEART

LEAKY VALVES

• Due to increases pressure of blood flow the valves start to leak.

VALVE REPLACEMENT

• The valves made up of metal or polymers or the biological valves from animals can be used to replace the faulty valve

IRREGULAR HEART BEAT

• The natural pacemaker which are the group of cells at the top of the right atrium that regulates the heart beat do not function properly.

ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER

• Electrical devices called the artificial pacemaker takes over the function of natural pacemaker.

HEART FAILURE

• When the heart do function properly

HEART TRANSPLANT OR ARTIFICIAL HEART

• Artificial heart or heart transplant from the donor.

HUMAN GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

MECHANISM OF BREATHING

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GAS EXCHANGE

ALVEOLI

GREATER SURFACE AREA

SHORTER DIFFUSION DISTANCE

STEEP CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

ORGANISATION IN PLANTS

CELLS

TISSUES

• Xylém and Phloem
• Palisade mesophyll tissue
• Spongy mesophyll tissue

ORGANS – Root, Stem and Leaves

ORGAN SYSTEM – Water Transport System

ORGANISM

TRANSPIRATION

• Transpiration is the loss of water from the surface of the leaves in the forms of water vapours.
• In plants it takes place through the stomata.

FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

MEASURING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

• Potometer is the device which is used to measure the rate of water uptake or the rate of transpiration.
• The movement of bubble is an indicator of water movement which in turn shows the rate of transpiration

ADAPTATIONS TO LIMIT TRANSPIRATION

• Cuticle layer on the leaf which is waterproof prevent rate of transpiration
• Stomata are present on the lower surface to reduce rate of transpiration.
• Some plants stomata open is night and closes in day.
• In plants like cactus the leaves are reduced to spines to decreases the surface area for water loss.
• Some plants have sunken stomata.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

It is the process by which green plants prepare their own food by using water, carbon dioxide in presence of sunlight to form glucose and oxygen.

• Only leaves can photosynthesize as they have chloroplast which contains chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll is the green pigment that traps light for the leaves and helps them to photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is ENDOTHERMIC
• Endothermic as it takes in heat from the sunlight.
• The energy released in making glucose and oxygen is less than the energy required to break the bonds of carbon dioxide and water.

LEAF ADAPTATIONS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Mesophyll – Photosynthetic cells lies parallel to the surface to absorb maximum light and are closed to the stomata for quick diffusion of gases.

Chloroplast – They have chloroplast which contains chlorophyll and traps light for photosynthesis

Guard cell – They have stomata which are the pores for gas exchange

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• As the light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis increases and then it levels off.
• Initially the rate increases an€ then it has no effect as at that point other factors become limiting.

• As the light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis increases and then it levels off.
• Initially the rate increases and then it has no effect as at that point other factors become limiting

• As the temperature increases the rate increases as the particles gain kinetic energy and moves faster causing greater collision and increase reaction rate.
• Beyond optimum the rate decreases as at the higher temperature the enzymes get denatured. The enzyme changes shape and is not functions if the shape changes

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LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS

• The factor that limits the rate OF photosynthesis
• Limiting factor is that factor that is present in a least amount than required and affect the rate of photosynthesis.

As the pH increases the rate increases upto optimum. Beyond optimum the rate decreases as enzymes get denatured.

Measuring Photosynthesis

FATE OF GLUCOSE

• Glucose is soluble in water and if present longer will disturb osmotic balance of the cell Starch is complex molecule which is insoluble and can store large amount of glucose.
• Also starch being insoluble does not disturb the osmotic balance of the cell.

GLUCOSE

• Principle source of energy.
• It broken down during respiration and produces energy for the plant to grow and reproduce.

STARCH

• Excess glucose is stored in the plant as starch and is used by the plant when needed.

CELLULOSE

• Excess glucose can be converted into structural carbohydrate called Cellulose
• Cellulose is the component of the cell wall which provide shape and support to the plant.

PROTEINS

• Glucose is combined with nitrates and other mineral ions from the soil to form protein.
• Proteins are responsible for growth and also to make enzymes for metabolic reactions.

LIPIDS

• Glucose can be converted to fats and oil to serve as energy source.
• Fats and oil can form the component of the cell membrane
• They are also stored in seeds as an energy store for germination.

 
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TEST FOR STARCH

• Add Iodine Solution
• If the solution turns blue black it indicates the presence of starch.

GREENHOUSE

• It controls all the limiting factors to provide maximum yield of photosynthesize
• Temperature, light, carbon dioxide and other factors affecting photosynthesis are controlled and monitored.
• It works on the principle of greenhouse effect in which light is allowed to enter but is not allowed to escape thereby increasing light and temperature inside the greenhouse.

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RESPIRATION

It is the process of breaking down food to release energy.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

• Takes place in the presence of Oxygen
• Releases more energy and the food is completely broken down.
• Takes place in the mitochondria
• It is opposite of photosynthesis

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

• Takes place in absence of oxygen.
• Releases less energy and food is not completely broken down.
• Takes place in the Cytoplasm
• Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water
• C₆H₁₂O₆ +60₂ 6CO₂ + H₂O

PLANTS

• known as fermentation
• forms ethanol and carbon-dioxide
• Glucose Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide

ANIMALS

• takes place in muscles
• Glucose Lactic Acid

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BREATHING AND RESPIRATION

EXOTHERMIC

As it releases heat.

The energy released in making carbon dioxide and water is more than the energy taken in to break glucose and oxygen

Cristae are the folding of the inner membrane of the mitochondria to increase the surface area for the attachment of the enzymes

WHY WE NEED ENERGY

MOVEMENT

• Energy is required by the muscles to contract.
• Respiration provides energy for muscle contraction.
• Muscle cells have loads of mitochondria and glycogen for efficient respiration.

TRANSPORT

• Transport of substance in an out of the cell against the concentration gradient via active transport required energy.

THERMOREGULATION

• Respiration produces heat which helps to maintain the body temperature.

CATABOLISM

• Breaking of large substances to smaller ones like digestion requires energy.

ANABOLISM

• Building of bigger molecules from smaller ones like making proteins fats and lipids from minerals ions require energy

RESPONSE TO EXERCISE

Demand for oxygen and glucose increases as more energy is needed

BREATHING RATE

• The breathing rate increases so that more oxygen is inhaled to meet the demands of oxygen by the muscles.
• Increased breathing rates also increases the rate of removal of carbon dioxide.

HEART RATE

• Increase heart rate pumps more blood to the muscles.
• Increase blood supply increases the supply of both glucose and oxygen via blood to the muscles cells.

GLYCOGENOLYSIS

• Glycogen       Glucose
• Stored carbohydrates, glycogen is converted to glucose in the muscles during exercise to meet the demand for increased glucose.

WHY BREATHlNG RATE Б НОН AFTER STOPPlNG ТНЕ EXERClSE

Extra Oxygen needed by the body after exercise to recover.

OXYGEN DЕВТ*

• During Exercise the body switches to anaerobic respiration. So glucose is broken down into lactic Acid
• Glucose        Lactic Acid
• The lactic acid needs to be broken down into carbon dioxide. The breathing rate is still high to get maximum oxygen to break lactic acid.
• Lactic acid + O₂                       CO₂ + H₂O

METABOLISM

It is the sum of all the reactions of the body

CATABOLISM

Breakdown reaction in which bigger molecule is broken down into smaller ones.

1. a) Breakdown of glycogen
2. b) Breakdown of proteins
3. c) Breakdown of lipids
4. d) Respiration

ANABOLISM

It is the synthesis reaction in which bigger molecule js formed from the smaller ones.

1. a) Synthesis of cellulose from glucose
2. b) Synthesis of starch and glycogen from glucose
3. c) Synthesis of fats and lipids
4. d) Synthesis of proteins

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LIVER

DETOXIFICATION

• The alcohol or any poisonous substance taken in the body is detoxified in the liver as liver contains enzymes for detoxification

BREAKDOWN OF BLOOD CELLS

• Old and work out blood cells are broken down in liver.

BREAKDOWN OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES FOR EXCRETION

• Excess proteins is broken down into urea in the liver which is excreted by kidney as Urine

BREAK DOWN OF LACTIC ACID

• Lactic acid produced during anaerobic respiration in the muscles is transported into the liver via blood and liver converts it into carbon dioxide and water by taking in more oxygen which is inhaled as oxygen debt.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS VERSUS RESPIRATION

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Key Terms

Photosynthesis – It is the process by which green plants prepare their own food carbon dioxide and water are combined to form glucose and oxygen in presence of sunlight

Respiration – breakdown of food to release energy

Limiting Factors — Factor that limits the rate of photosynthesis

Endothermic Reaction— Reaction that takes in heat

Exothermic Reaction — Reaction that releases heat

Glucose — product of photosynthesis and fuel for respiration

Starch — Storage carbohydrate in plants

Glycogen — Storage carbohydrate in animals

Aerobic Respiration – Breaking down of food in presence of oxygen

Anaerboic Respiration – breaking down of food in absence of oxygen

Fermentation – Anaerobic respiration in plants that produces ethanol and carbon dioxide

Greenhouse – A glass or a plastic house to control the limiting factors and increase the rate of photosynthesis.

Metabolism – Sum Of all the catabolic and anabolic reactions of the body.

Liver – An organ involved in metabolism.

Lactic Acid — The product of anaerobic respiration in animals

Oxygen Debt —The extra oxygen needed exercise to break down lactic acid and recover to pre exercise state.

HOMEOSTASIS – The process of maintaining the constant internal environment

Nervous System and the Hormonal System

Homeostasis is important for the enzymes as the enzymes control all the reactions of the body and they need optimum condition to work.

NEURONES

Motor Neurone

• Motor Neurones connect the CNS to the Effectors
• Takes impulses away from CNS
• Motor neurones sends the message from the central nervous system to the effectors.

Sensory Neurone

• Sensory Neurones connect sense organs with the Central Nervous System.

Relay Neurone

• Relay Neurones are present in the CNS and occur between the sensory and motor neurons for distant transmission of Impulses.
• Found in CNS
• Connect Sensory and Motor Neurones

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REFLEX ACTIONS

• It is the automatic response of the body to a stimulus.
• In reflex action the message from the sensory neurones is passed to the spinal chord instead of brain.
• Spinal Chord sends the message to the effectors and produce a response

Example: Knee Jerk Reflexes,

• Touching hot object, Sudden closure of light with bright light
• It is rapid
• It is quick Automatic, Instantaneous without conscious thoughts

Stimulus

Receptor

Spinal Chord

Motor neurones

Effector

Response

SYNAPSE

Message is transmitted by chemicals

BRAIN – It is the Central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and Control System.

CEREBRUM (Cerebral Hemisphere) – It is nearly 80% part of the brain

• Consciousness
• Memory
• Intelligence
• Language

CEREBELLUM – It lies behind the cerebrum and above the medulla oblongata. It is the second largest part of brain and is highly convoluted area which accommodates many neurons.

• Muscle Coordination
• Balance

MEDULLA OBLONGATA or oblong marrow is oblong cylindrical part of the brain. It forms the hindermost part of the brain.

• Unconscious Activities like Heart Rate, Breathing.
• Gut Movement

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BRAIN SCAN

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) helps to take the Images of different parts of the brain and relating it with loss of functions of the individual

Problems

• Brain is complex
• Skull protects the brain
• Thousands and neurones and neurotransmitter are involved
• The functions of different parts is still not understood.
• Drugs do not reach the brain

Eye – It is lodged in orbit of skull, hollow, spherical organ, about 2.5 cm in diameter and about 6-8gram in weight

ACCOMMODATION- Ability of eye to adjust the focal length of the lens to make clear image of the objects lying at varying distances. It is a reflex mechanism and is done with the help of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament.

For distant vision, ciliary muscle relax making the suspensory ligaments tensed which inturn make the lens thin so that the image is focussed on the retina.

For near vision, ciliary muscle contract making the suspensory ligaments to slack which inturn make the lens thick so that the image is focussed on the retina.

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DEFECTS OF VISION

MYOPIA

• Short sightedness
• The image falls in front of the retina of the eye.
• Eye ball gets elongated
• corrected by concave lens

HYPERMETROPIA

• Long sightedness
• The image falls behind the retina of the eye.
• Eye balls gets shortened
• corrected by convex lens

NEW EYE TECHNOLOGIES

Contact Lenses

• Lenses are placed on the surface of the eye.
• Includes soft, silk and disposable lenses
• Can be used by any person at any age

Laser Surgery

• Laser is used to change the thickness or the curve of the cornea so that defects of vision can be corrected.
• Can be done on adults after the growing age.

Replacement Lens

• It involves either replacing the faulty lens or inserting the correct one with the faulty one.
• Include damage risk to the eye.

HORMONAL CONTROL

HORMONAL and NERVOUS SYSTEM

Hormones

• They are chemical messenger secreted by the endocrine glands
• they are secreted in the blood and travel to the target organ
• Target organ has receptors and hormones
• bind to the receptor and triggers a response
• It produces a slower but long term response

Nervous System

• Is the system of neurones which send electrical impulses to produce a response
• The message is transmitted via electrical impulses
• The response produced is localised and impulses do not travel large distances
• It produces quick but short term response

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PITUITARY : THE MASTER GLAND – Smallest endocrine gland of the body. It is pea shaped, ovoid, reddish brown gland situated at base of the brain in cavity, sella turcica of sphenoid bone. It controls almost all endocrine glands. Hence it is also called master gland

• Master Gland
• It controls other glands of the body
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone
• Antidiuretic Hormone
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormones

EXAMPLES

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CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

• Pancreas Insulin and Glucagon (lowers the blood glucose level)
• Increases the blood glucose level)
• Insulin Effect
• It increases the permeability of cells to glucose
• It converts excess glucose to -glycogen
• It converts excess glucose to fats
• It stops the breakdown of fats

Glucagon ‘is the hormone

Glycogen is the stored carbohydrate

DIABETES

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DIABETES TREATMENT

TYPE 1

• Insulin injections directly into the blood stream.
• Less taken orally as being a protein hormone it can get digested by stomach.
• The insulin converts excess glucose into glycogen and control the blood glucose level.
• Less intake of carbohydrates.
• Pancreatic Transplant
• Pancreatic Cell Transplant
• Using stem cells to regenerate pancreatic cells.

TYPE 2

• Balanced diet
• Regular Exercise
• Weight Management
• Drug to increase sensitivity of pancreas to insulin
• Insulin injections to increase the concentration of insulin to make them more responsive to insulin.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

• When the level of anything rises above optimum like glucose concentration, water concentration or temperature negative feedback decreases it
• When the level of anything decreases below optimum the negative feedback raises it.

FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONE

• Stress Hormone
• Increase heart rate
• Increase breathing rate
• Dilate the pupil

Emergency Hormones

• Increase Blood Flow
• Increase the flow of oxygen to the brain
• Divert blood flow away from the gut

 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

TESTOSTERONE

Male hormone responsible for secondary sexual characters

OESTROGEN

Female hormone responsible for secondary sexual characters

MENSTURATION CYCLE

 HORMONES OF MENSTURATION

CONTRACEPTION METHODS

Preventing Sperms to reach the egg. Preventing the implantation of the zygote in the uterus.

Barrier Methods: Prevent the sperm to meet the eggs

Hormonal Methods: Prevents the eggs to mature or prevent the implantation of eggs in the uterus.

Chemical Methods: Kills the sperm

Intrauterine Device: Prevent embryo from implanting

Surgical Method: It is permanent contraception

HOW CONTRACEPTION WORKS?

Contraceptive Pills

• They contain the mix of female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. -MIX PILL
• Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
• Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
• Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantation.
• Some pills are progesterone only pills.
• A contraceptive implant is also inserted which slowly release progesterone in the uterus.
• A contraceptive patch also absorbs the mix of hormones into the blood
• Side Effects: blood pressure, has to be taken daily changes in menstural pattern

Contraceptive Pills

• They contain the mix of female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. -MIX PILL
• Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
• Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
• Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantation.
• Some pills are progesterone only pills.
• A contraceptive implant is also inserted which slowly release progesterone in the uterus.
• A contraceptive patch also absorbs the mix of hormones into the blood
• Side Effects: blood pressure, has to be taken daily changes in menstural pattern

Intra Uterine Device

• Copper T is inserted into the uterus
• It releases copper ions which are toxic to sperms
• The device also prevent the implanting of the embryo into the uterus
• Some releases progesterones which works the same like contraceptive pills
• Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
• Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
• Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantatiom
• Side Effects: Infection; Internal Bleeding

 Surgical Methods

VASECTOMY: Male Sterlization

• Sperms ducts are cut and sealed so that the sperms cannot enter the urethra preventing fertilization.

TUBECTOMY: Femal Sterlization

• The oviducts are cut and tied to prevent the release of egg which prevent
• Sterlizatlom
• Side Effects – It is permanent.

INFERTILITY PROBLEMS

OVULATION PROBLEM

• The eggs do not mature or problem ovulating.
• The women is given fertility drugs which are the mix of FSH and LH that stimulated maturation and ovulation

FAULTY TUBES

IMPLANTATION

• In Vitro Fertilization where fertilization is performed in the laboratory and the embryo is implanted back in the uterus for the development

PREGNANCY DEVELOPMENT

• Surrogate Mother where the fertilized egg is implanted into another mother who gives birth

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION

• Expensive
• Results in multiple embryos
• Premature births
• Birth with disability
• Not always successful

Fertility drugs to stimulate ovulation

Ovary and sperm are collected to perform fertilization.

Fertilized egg is developed in the laboratory giving suitable conditions to develop into an embryo.

Embryo is inserted into the uterus

Develops into a baby.

Plant Hormones

Auxin is produced in the shoot tip. When light falls on auxin it is displaced to the shader side promoting growth of the shader region resulting in growth of shoot towards light.

Gravitropism – The movement of roots towards gravity.

• It is also caused by auxin. In roots auxin inhibits the growth of the roots at the lower side resulting in bending of the root downwards.
• Auxin is displaced to lower side in response to gravity.

PLANT HORMONES

AUXINS

• It stimulates cell divsion and growth of the plant
• It is used to stimulate rooting in tissue culture.
• Used as Weedicide causing excess growth of the weed and killing them.

GIBBERLINS

• Seed germination
• Promote flowering
• End seed dormancy
• Elongation of stem.

ETHENE

• It is a gaseous hormone
• It is involved in fruit ripening
• Allows transportation of raw fruit to long distances and then they can be ripped by ethene.

Cytokinin

Caused Cell Division

Abscicic acid

Stress hormone prepared the plant for stress conditions

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WASTE PRODUCTS

The products produced during metabolic reactions like respiration, digestion etc.

Carbon Dioxide

• Produced during respiration.
• Is excreted out through the lungs by the process of expiration
• Carbon dioxide is harmful as it can alter the pH of the blood affecting enzyme activity.

Water

• Produced during respiration and digestion process.
• Is excreted through skin in the forms of sweating or some by breathing and by kidney in the form of urine.
• Water can also disturb the osmotic balance and salt level of the body.

Urea

• Produced by the liver by metabolising excress proteins as it is toxic and cannot be stored.
• It is excreted by Kidney in the form of Urine.

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

ULTRAFILTRATION

• Kidneys filters the blood at a very high pressure.
• All the water, glucose, and useful components gets into the kidney filtrate. The blood cells and blood proteins due to their bigger Size are not filtered.

SELECTIVE REABSORPTION

• Since the kidney contains useful substance in the filtrate it reabsorbs back them into the blood.
• The water also gets reabsorbed depending on the needs of the body.

 OSMOREGULATION

DIALYSIS

• Artificial Kidney blood flows into the dialysis machine which contains dialysis fluid.
• Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of essential minerals ions,as that of blood but no urea.
• As blood flows into the dialysis fluid, urea is diffused out along the concentration gradient and excess salt is also removed maintaing the normal salt and mineral ions level.
• The clean blood is then pumped back.
• Lifestyle changes, regular visits, change in diet and regular expenditure are some of the disadvantages.

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KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

• Replacing diseased kidney with the healthy one.
• The donor should be a close relative to prevent rejection.
• The person has to be on Immuno – suprresant drugs so that the body immune system does not reject it.
• Does not last long and person is prone to other infectious diseases due to immuno suppresant drugs.

DIALYSIS KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

DIALYSIS

Advantages

• No surgery
• No infection
• No immuno supressant drugs
• Easyily available

Disadvantages

• Lifestyle changes
• Regular visits and long procedure
• Restricted Diet

KIDNEY TRANSPLANT

Advantages

• No regular visit
• No lifestyle changes
• No diet restriction

Disadvantages

• Does not last forever
• Chances of rejection
• Immuno supressant drugs to be taken
• Person is more prone to infections.
• Finding a suitable donor is a problem

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KEY TERMS

• Homeostasis – Homeostasis is the process of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment adequate to sustain life.
• Receptors – Receptor is any cell or organ of an animal capable of detecting a stimulus is a change in the external or internal environment and which subsequently brings about a response in the behavior of the animal.
• Effectors – Effector is any muscle, gland or an organ capable of responding to a stimulus, particularly a nervous impulse.
• Stimulus – A biological stimulus is any external change in the environment that can be detected by an organism.
• Neurones – These are structural and functional Units of Neural System. Each Neuron consists of the cell body (cyton) and nerve fibre (axon)
• Central Nervous System – Consists of Brain and Spinal cord
• Sensory Neurones – These connect sense organs with the Central Nervous System.
• Motor Neurones – These connect the CNS to the Effectors
• Relay Neurones – These are present in the CNS and occur between the sensory and motor neurons for distant transmission of Impulses.
• Reflex Arc – The path followed by the stimulus (impulse) from beginning to end is the reflected arc.
• Brain – It is the Central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and Control System.
• Cerebral Cortex – Grey matter forms 2-4mm thick outer cortex of cerebrum called cerebral cortex
• Cerebellum – literally means little cerebrum. Cerebellum has grey matter on outer side and made of three layers of cells and fibres. 2^nd largest part of the brain.
• Medulla – directly controls some ANS responses, such as heart rate, respiration, dilation of blood vessels, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. It is a part of the brain stem, located just below the prominence and just above the spinal cord.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – It helps to take the Images of different parts of the brain and relating it with loss of functions of the individual
• Eye – Hollow spherical organ, about 2.5cm in diameter and about 6-8gm in weight. It is lodged in orbit of skull.
• Blind Spot – The spot on the retina which has no receptor.
• Accomodation- Ability of eye to adjust the focal length of the lens to make clear image of the objects lying at varying distances. It is a reflex mechanism and is done with the help of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament.
• Ciliary Muscles – help in accommodation and ciliary process that secrets aqueous humour.
• Iris – Visible coloured portion of the eye, contains two types of muscles- circular and radial.
• Pupil – In front of the lens the aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil.
• Myopia – Also known as near sightness or short sightness. Near object is Clear. Far object is not clear. Eyeball become longer.
• Hypermetropia – long sightness. Far object is clear, near object is not Clear. Eyeball becomes short.
• Endocrine System – the endocrine system consists of glands widely separated from each other with no direct anatomical links. Also called ductless glands
• Hormones – Hormones are the chemical substances produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of some cells or organs.
• Adrenaline – It is a hormone released by the adrenal glands and its main action, along with norepinephrine, is to prepare the body to “fight or flee”.
• Insulin – Secreted by Pancreas, is a small protein whose molecule consists of two polypeptide chains
• Pituitary Gland – Smallest endocrine gland of the body. It is Pea shaped, ovoid, reddish brown gland situated at base of the brain. It controls almost all endocrine glands. Hence it is also called master gland.
• FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone. In males stimulates spermatogenesis. In females growth of ovarian follicles upto ovulation.
• Oestrogen – stimulation of growth and activities of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, mammary gland development.
• Progesterone – it acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli, milk secretion and supports pregnancy.
• Glucagon – Glucagon is produced to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting and to increase very low glucose levels.
• Glycogen – Glycogen is the major carbohydrate storage form in animals, and corresponds to starch in plants.
• Diabetes – Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high.
• Mensturation – Menstruation or your period is the shedding of the uterine lining once a month.
• Ovulation – the release of an egg from an ovary — occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle.
• Phototropism – It is the ability of a plant, or other photosynthesizing organism, to grow directionally in response to a light source.
• Gravitotropism – Gravitropism is a plant’s natural growth response to the effects of gravity.
• Auxins – Auxin is involved in cell growth and cell expansion
• Gibberlins – Gibberellins promote stem elongation between nodes on the stem.
• Dialysis – The process of removing waste products and excess fluid from the body.
• Selective Reabsorption – Selective reabsorption is the process by which some molecules (eg – Ions, glucose and amino acids), after having been filtered by capillaries together with nitrogen waste products (eg Urea) and water in the glomerulus, are reabsorbed by filtration as they pass through the nephron.

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Disclaimer:

I have tried my level best to cover the maximum of your specification. But this is not the alternative to the textbook. You should cover the specification or the textbook thoroughly. This is the quick revision to help you cover the gist of everything. In case you spot any errors then do let us know and we will rectify it.

References:

BBC Bitesize

Wikipedia

Wikimedia Commons

Image Source:

Wikipedia

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Commons

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• Photosynthesis 1 MS
• Photosynthesis 1 QP
• Photosynthesis 2 MS
• Photosynthesis 2 QP
• Photosynthesis 3 MS
• Photosynthesis 3 QP

Respiration

• Respiration 1 MS
• Respiration 1 QP
• Respiration 2 MS
• Respiration 2 QP
• Respiration 3 MS
• Respiration 3 QP

Human Nervous System

• Human Nervous System 1 MS
• Human Nervous System 1 QP
• Human Nervous System 2 MS
• Human Nervous System 2 QP
• Human Nervous System 3 MS
• Human Nervous System 3 QP

 Hormonal Coordination In Humans